Otto von Bismarck

Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman who served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire. He unified the German states under Prussian leadership and shaped the political order of Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Early Life and Career

Bismarck was born in 1815 in Schönhausen, in the Prussian province of Saxony. He studied law and agriculture and managed the family estates.

He entered the Prussian legislature and was known for his conservative and combative views. He served as a diplomat at the German Confederation and as ambassador to Russia and to France.

He was appointed Minister-President of Prussia in 1862 during a constitutional crisis. He governed without the consent of the legislature and pursued a policy of military reform.

The Wars of Unification

Bismarck guided Prussia through three wars that led to the unification of Germany. The war with Denmark in 1864 secured control of Schleswig and Holstein.

The war with Austria in 1866 excluded Austria from German affairs and established the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership. The war with France in 1870 brought the southern German states into the union.

The German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles in January 1871, and William I became emperor. Bismarck became chancellor and dominated the politics of the new state.

Domestic Policy

Bismarck introduced a series of social reforms, including health insurance, accident insurance, and old-age pensions. The measures were designed to undercut the appeal of socialism.

He also conducted the Kulturkampf, a struggle against the political influence of the Catholic Church. The campaign was only partly successful and was later abandoned.

He opposed the Social Democrats and tried to suppress the party. The policies were controversial and contributed to the growth of the workers' movement.

Foreign Policy

Bismarck sought to preserve the peace of Europe and to isolate France. He built a system of alliances, including the League of the Three Emperors and the Triple Alliance.

He declared that his aim was a balance of power and that Germany was a satisfied power. He opposed colonial expansion until late in his career, when he acquired territories in Africa and the Pacific.

He was dismissed by the young emperor William II in 1890. He retired to his estate and wrote his memoirs.

Legacy

Bismarck is regarded as the architect of German unification and as one of the greatest statesmen of the nineteenth century. His diplomacy shaped the European order for two decades.

His domestic policies established the foundations of the welfare state. His method of realpolitik has been studied as a model of pragmatic statecraft.

His legacy is contested, because the state that he created later became the principal actor in the two world wars. He is nevertheless remembered as a figure of immense ability.

The Constitutional Conflict

Bismarck was appointed Minister-President in 1862 during a dispute over the reform of the army. The liberal majority in the legislature refused to approve the budget.

He governed without parliamentary consent and collected the taxes on the authority of the crown. The policy, known as the gap theory, provoked outrage among the liberals.

The conflict was resolved by the victories of the wars of unification, which increased his popularity. The liberals split, and the government retained control of the army.

The North German Confederation

The confederation, established in 1867, was a federal state under the leadership of Prussia. It had a constitution with a president, a chancellor, and a legislature.

Bismarck served as chancellor and dominated the government. The constitution was extended to the German Empire in 1871.

The franchise for the imperial parliament was universal for men, a measure that Bismarck had supported for conservative reasons. He believed that the rural population would vote for the government.

The Kulturkampf

Bismarck's conflict with the Catholic Church was prompted by the declaration of papal infallibility and by the influence of the Centre Party. He introduced legislation to control the church and to subject the clergy to state supervision.

The campaign failed and strengthened the Centre Party. Bismarck eventually made peace with the papacy and turned his attention to the socialists.

The episode illustrates the limits of his power and the importance of the Catholic Church in German society. He later acknowledged that the conflict had been a mistake.

Social Legislation

Bismarck introduced health insurance in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, and old-age and disability insurance in 1889. The measures were the first of their kind in Europe.

He designed the programmes to bind the workers to the state and to weaken the appeal of socialism. He also supported the antisocialist laws, which suppressed the Social Democratic movement.

The combination of repression and welfare became a model for later conservative reformers. The system of social insurance has survived and developed.

The Fall and After

Bismarck was dismissed by William II in 1890 after disagreements over policy towards Russia and towards the workers. He retired to Friedrichsruh and wrote his memoirs.

He was critical of the emperor and of the new course of German policy. He predicted that the abandonment of the Russian alliance would lead to a two-front war.

He died in 1898 and was given a magnificent funeral. His reputation as the founder of the German state has been contested, but he remains one of the most consequential statesmen of the nineteenth century.

See also

• Unification of Germany
• Realpolitik