Voltaire

Voltaire was a French writer, historian, and philosopher of the Enlightenment. He was a prolific author and a fierce critic of religious intolerance and of political oppression, and his name became a symbol of the struggle for freedom of thought.

Early Life and Education

Voltaire was born in 1694 in Paris as François-Marie Arouet. He was educated at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he received a classical and Jesuit education.

He began to write satirical verse and was imprisoned in the Bastille for a poem attacking the regent. He adopted the name Voltaire and was exiled to England in 1726.

He was impressed by English liberty, by the works of Newton and Locke, and by the relative tolerance of English society. The experience shaped his later thought.

The Philosophical Letters

The Philosophical Letters, published in 1734, presented English institutions and ideas to a French audience. The book was condemned and publicly burned, and Voltaire fled to the provinces.

He wrote on literature, history, and science, and he produced tragedies, poetry, and historical works. His history of Charles XII of Sweden and his age of Louis XIV were influential.

He corresponded with Frederick the Great of Prussia and lived at his court for several years. He also lived in Switzerland and in Ferney, near the border with France.

Candide and the Critique of Optimism

Candide, published in 1759, is his most famous work and one of the masterpieces of French literature. The tale attacks the philosophy of optimism, and in particular the doctrine that this is the best of all possible worlds.

The story follows the misfortunes of its hero and his companions, and it satirises war, religion, and philosophy. The concluding injunction to cultivate one's garden expresses a pragmatic response to suffering.

The book was an immediate success and was widely translated. It established Voltaire as the leading figure of the French Enlightenment.

Religious Tolerance

Voltaire campaigned against religious intolerance and against the injustice of the courts. He took up the case of Jean Calas, a Protestant executed on a false charge, and secured the rehabilitation of his memory.

He wrote the Treatise on Tolerance and the Philosophical Dictionary, which attacked fanaticism and superstition. He was a deist and criticised the institutions of the church.

He was also critical of the Bible and of the history of Christianity, and his works were placed on the Index of Prohibited Books. He was a freemason and a friend of the philosophes.

Legacy

Voltaire is regarded as one of the founders of the modern idea of freedom of expression. His campaigns against injustice and intolerance set an example for later reformers.

His writings are extensive and cover many fields. He was a master of prose and of satire, and his style influenced generations of writers.

He died in Paris in 1778, shortly after his return to the city. His remains were moved to the Panthéon during the Revolution, and his name remains associated with the Enlightenment.

The Letters and the Philosophes

The Philosophical Letters presented the achievements of English science, philosophy, and government to a French audience. The comparison was an implicit criticism of French institutions.

The book established Voltaire as a leader of the Enlightenment. He became a member of the Académie française and of the Royal Society.

He worked with the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert, contributing articles on literature and history. The project was the great collective enterprise of the French Enlightenment.

The Histories

Voltaire wrote major works of history, including the Age of Louis XIV and the Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations. He sought to write the history of civilisation rather than merely of kings and battles.

He examined commerce, manners, and the arts, and he introduced the study of non-European societies. His approach influenced the development of cultural history.

He was appointed royal historiographer of France and served as a diplomat. He was also interested in science and corresponded with the leading scientists of the day.

Ferney and the Campaigns

Voltaire spent his last years at Ferney, near the Swiss border, where he lived as a landed gentleman. He wrote pamphlets and letters and conducted a vast correspondence.

He campaigned against the injustice of the courts and against religious fanaticism. He intervened in the cases of Calas, of Sirven, and of La Barre, and he worked for the reform of the legal system.

His campaigns publicised the abuses of the ancien régime and contributed to the climate of opinion that preceded the Revolution. He was a master of the pamphlet and of the polemic.

The Philosophical Dictionary

The Philosophical Dictionary, published in 1764, is a collection of articles on philosophical and religious topics. It attacks fanaticism, superstition, and intolerance.

He defined fanaticism as a disease of the mind and called for a rational religion. He criticised the historical reliability of the Bible and the doctrines of the church.

The book was condemned and burned, and it was widely read in clandestine editions. It is a classic of Enlightenment thought.

Reputation

Voltaire's reputation has fluctuated. He has been praised as the champion of toleration and criticised for his wealth and for his attitudes towards the Jews and towards the common people.

His influence on the intellectual life of Europe was immense. He was the most famous writer of his age, and his works were read throughout the continent.

He is remembered as a symbol of the Enlightenment and of the struggle for freedom of thought. His name is associated with the defence of reason against fanaticism.

See also

• Age of Enlightenment
• Freedom of speech