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'''Labour productivity''' measures the output produced per unit of labour input, typically per hour worked or per worker. It is a key determinant of living standards, competitiveness, and long-run growth. Rising labour productivity allows an economy to produce more with the same resources, supporting higher wages, lower prices, or improved public services. Labour productivity also influences inflation, since faster productivity growth can offset wage increases without generating price pressure.

== Measurement ==

Labour productivity is calculated as output divided by labour input. Output may be measured as gross value added or gross output, and labour input as hours worked, number of workers, or full-time equivalents. The choice affects the resulting measure. An increase in output per worker may reflect more hours worked rather than greater efficiency, so output per hour is generally preferred as a measure of efficiency.

International comparisons require adjustments for purchasing power parity, since output must be valued consistently across countries. Differences in the composition of output, in the share of part-time work, and in the quality of labour also complicate comparisons. Productivity can be measured at the level of the whole economy, a sector, an industry, or a firm, and each level provides different insights.

== Determinants ==

Labour productivity is determined by several factors. '''Capital intensity''' raises productivity because workers with more and better capital equipment can produce more. '''Human capital''', the skills and education of workers, is a major determinant. '''Technology''' and innovation raise productivity by improving production processes and products. '''Organisational and managerial quality''' affects how efficiently inputs are combined. '''Institutions''' and '''infrastructure''' shape the environment in which firms operate, and '''competition''' can spur efficiency.

These determinants interact. Investment in capital without complementary skills and technology may yield limited gains, and innovation without a business environment that rewards it may not translate into productivity growth. The diffusion of best practices across firms is often as important as the creation of new technologies, since a large gap typically exists between the most and least productive firms in the same industry.

== Productivity and growth ==

In growth accounting, output growth is decomposed into contributions from labour, capital, and total factor productivity, the residual that captures improvements in efficiency and technology. Total factor productivity growth has been the dominant source of long-run increases in living standards in advanced economies. Slowing productivity growth in many economies since the 2000s has prompted debate about the causes, including the diffusion of information technology, demographic change, measurement issues, and declining business dynamism.

Labour productivity growth supports higher wages, but the relationship is not automatic. Wages also depend on bargaining power, labour market institutions, and the share of income accruing to labour. In recent decades, wage growth has lagged productivity growth in many advanced economies, contributing to inequality and to debates about the distribution of gains from growth.

== Policy ==

Policies to raise labour productivity include investment in education and training, support for research and innovation, improvements in infrastructure and digital networks, and reforms to product and labour markets that encourage competition and the reallocation of resources to more productive firms. Business environment reforms that reduce barriers to entry and growth can also help, as can measures to improve management quality and to encourage the adoption of technology.

Measurement also matters for policy, since an accurate picture of productivity trends guides resource allocation. Statistical agencies invest in improving the measurement of output in services and the digital economy, where productivity gains are often poorly captured. Understanding the sources of productivity growth remains central to policies aimed at raising living standards.

== Productivity and wages ==

The link between productivity and wages is central to the analysis of living standards. In the long run, real wages tend to grow in line with productivity, because firms compete for labour and workers capture part of the gains from efficiency improvements. In the short run, the two can diverge because of cyclical conditions, changes in the terms of trade, and shifts in bargaining power.

In recent decades, wage growth has lagged productivity growth in many advanced economies, raising questions about the distribution of gains from growth. Explanations include the decline in labour's bargaining power, the rise of market concentration, the effects of globalisation, and the growing share of income accruing to capital and to top earners. Understanding these trends is central to debates about inequality and about policies to ensure that productivity gains are widely shared.

== Productivity and structural change ==

Productivity growth is uneven across sectors and firms. Structural change, the reallocation of resources from low- to high-productivity sectors, contributes to aggregate productivity growth, but the pace of reallocation varies. In some economies, resources remain trapped in low-productivity firms and sectors, a phenomenon known as misallocation, which depresses aggregate productivity. Barriers to entry and exit, weak competition, and distorted incentives can all contribute to misallocation.

Within industries, a large gap often persists between the most and least productive firms, even when they operate in the same market. The diffusion of best practices, through competition, trade, and the movement of workers and managers, is a major source of aggregate productivity gains. Policies that encourage diffusion, including openness and investment in skills, can raise productivity without requiring frontier innovation.

== Measurement challenges ==

Measuring productivity is difficult, especially in services and in the digital economy, where output is hard to define and quality change is rapid. Free digital services, such as search and maps, generate consumer benefits that are not captured in GDP, and the measurement of output in sectors such as finance and healthcare is contentious. These issues can lead to underestimation of productivity growth and can distort comparisons across countries and over time.

Statisticians and researchers continue to improve measurement, using satellite accounts, quality-adjusted price indices, and alternative indicators of economic activity. Accurate measurement matters for policy, because it informs judgements about the pace of potential growth and the effectiveness of structural reforms.

== See also ==

* [[Productivity]]
* [[Total Factor Productivity]]
* [[Human Capital]]
* [[Economic Growth]]
* [[Unit Labour Cost]]

== References ==


<ref name="r1">OECD work on productivity measurement and policy.</ref>
<ref name="r2">World Bank research on productivity and competitiveness.</ref>
<ref name="r3">International Labour Organization data on labour productivity.</ref>
<ref name="r4">National statistical agency methodology for productivity statistics.</ref>

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